Опыт применения теплонасосных установок большой мощности в системах централизованного теплоснабжения

Государственная программа Республики Беларусь «Устойчивая энергетика и энергоэффективность» на 2026–2030 гг. предусматривает максимально возможное использование тепловых насосов в централизованных и децентрализованных системах теплоснабжения. Основными факторами, способствующими использованию теплонасосных установок (ТНУ) совместно с технологиями аккумулирования тепловой энергии, являются: возможность применения низкотемпературных источников теплоты, повышение маневренности энергосистемы в условиях высокой доли генерации электроэнергии от возобновляемых энергоисточников и атомных электростанций, снижение выбросов вредных веществ. В статье обсуждаются обстоятельства и технические решения по интеграции в системы теплоснабжения ТНУ большой мощности. К настоящему времени доля последних в структуре генерирующих мощностей энергоисточников систем централизованного теплоснабжения (СЦТ) в мировой практике остается незначительной, однако в целом ряде стран в рамках программ декарбонизации энергетики рассматривается их широкое применение в ближайшей перспективе. Авторами обсуждаются технические аспекты интеграции ТНУ в действующие СЦТ с применением различных источников низкопотенциальной теплоты,рассмотрено применение различных типов рабочих тел, проанализированы финансовые затраты на реализацию проектов. Показано, что широкое внедрение ТНУ ограничивается высокими капитальными затратами, неопределенностью формирования тарифов на электроэнергию и неопределенностью информации об эффективности работы оборудования на переменных нагрузках. В этих условиях проекты внедрения ТНУ в СЦТ не могут рассматриваться как типовые решения, они требуют применения индивидуальных проектных решений для каждого конкретного случая. Результаты анализа технических решений реализованных к настоящему времени проектов показывают техническую возможность и экономическую целесообразность использования ТНУ большой мощности в СЦТ на территории Республики Беларусь при наличии экономически приемлемого источника низкопотенциальной теплоты.

1. О Государственной программе «Устойчивая энергетика и энергоэффективность» на 2026–2030 годы: постановление Совета Министров Респ. Беларусь, 31 дек. 2026 № 819 // Национальный правовой Интернет-портал Республики Беларусь. URL:https://pravo.by/document/?guid=12551&p0=C22500819 (дата обращения: 15.04.2026).

2. The Future of Heat Pumps in China / International Energy Agency, Tsinghua University Building Energy Research Center. Paris: IEA, 2024. 153 p.

3. Potential Evaluation of Integrated High Temperature Heat Pumps: a Review of Recent Advances / K. Hamid, U. Sajjad, M. U. Ahrens [et al.] // Applied Thermal Engineering. 2023. Vol. 230, Part A. Art. 120720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.120720

4. An Integrated Predictive Model of the Long-Term Performance of Ground Source Heat Pump (GSHP) Systems / W. Li, X. Li, Y. Wan [et al.] // Energy and Buildings. 2018. Vol. 159. P. 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.11.012

5. Latõšov, E. CO2 Emission Intensity of the Estonian DH Sector / E. Latõšov, S. Umbleja, A. Volkova // Smart Energy. 2022. Vol. 6. Art. 100070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segy.2022.100070

6. Седнин, А. В. Проблемы развития гибридных систем теплоснабжения / А. В. Седнин, К. М. Дюсенов // Энергетика. Изв. высш. учеб. заведений и энерг. объединений СНГ. 2024. Т. 67, № 2. С. 173–188. https://doi.org/10.21122/1029-7448-2024-67-2-173-188

7. Михалевич, А. А. Моделирование работы Белорусской энергосистемы с учетом ввода АЭС / А. А. Михалевич, В. А. Рак // Энергетика. Изв. высш. учеб. заведений и энерг. объединений СНГ. 2021. Т. 64, № 1. С. 5–14. https://doi.org/10.21122/1029-7448-2021-64-1-5-14

8. Седнин, А. В. Энергоэффективность применения гибридных тепловых пунктов в условиях интеграции электрических и тепловых сетей городских микрорайонов. Ч. 1. Обоснование целесообразности применения гибридных тепловых пунктов / А. В. Седнин, М. И. Позднякова // Энергетика. Изв. высш. учеб. заведений и энерг. объединений СНГ. 2023. Т. 66, № 6. С. 552–566. https://doi.org/10.21122/1029-7448-2023-66-6-552-566

9. Heat Pumping Technologies. Annex 47: Simulation-Oriented Multi-Level Planning Tool for Geothermal Heat Pump Systems. URL: https://heatpumpingtechnologies.org/annex47/ (date of access: 15.04.2026).

10. Guidebook for the Integration of Renewable Energy Sources into Existing District Heating and Cooling Systems: final report of IEA DHC Annex TS5 / A. Dénarié, S. Hay, M. Kemper [et al.]; Ed. T. Pauschinger. Frankfurt am Main: AGFW-Projekt GmbH, 2025. URL: https://www.iea-dhc.org/fileadmin/documents/Annex_TS5/Final_Draft_Version/Guidbook_TS5.pdf (date of access: 15.04.2026).

11. The Role of District Heating Systems to Provide Balancing Services in the European Union / A. Boldrini, J. P. Jiménez Navarro, W. H. J. Crijns-Graus [et al.] // Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2022. Vol. 154. Art. 111853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111853

12. A Literature Review of Energy Flexibility in District Heating with a Survey of the Stakeholders' Participation / Z. Ma, A. Knotzer, J. D. Billanes [et al.] // Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2020. Vol. 123. Art. 109750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109750

13. Energy-Charts / Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare Energiesysteme ISE. URL: https://www.energycharts.info/ (date of access: 15.04.2026).

14. Allouhi, A. Techno-Economic and Environmental Accounting Analyses of an Innovative Power-to-Heat Concept Based on Solar PV Systems and a Geothermal Heat Pump / A. Allouhi // Renewable Energy. 2022. Vol. 191. P. 649–661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.04.001

15. Dispatch Strategies for Large-Scale Heat Pump Based District Heating under High Renewable Share and Risk-Aversion: A Multistage Stochastic Optimization Approach / M. B. Siddique, D. Keles, F. Scheller [et al.] // Energy Economics. 2024. Vol. 136. Art. 107764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2024.107764

16. Coupling the Heating and Power Sectors: The Role of Centralised Combined Heat and Power Plants and District Heat in a European Decarbonised Power System / J. P. Jimenez-Navarro, K. Kavvadias, F. Filippidou [et al.] // Applied Energy. 2020. Vol. 270. Art. 115134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115134

17. Kontu, K. Introducing Modern Heat Pumps to Existing District Heating Systems Global Lessons from Viable Decarbonizing of District Heating in Finland / K. Kontu, S. Rinne, S. Junnila // Energy. 2019. Vol. 166. P. 862–870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.10.077

18. Integrating Renewable and Waste Heat and Cold Sources into District Heating and Cooling Systems. Case Studies Analysis, Replicable Key Success Factors and Potential Policy Implications / M. Galindo-Fernandez, A. Bacquet, S. Bensadi [et al.]. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2760/111509

19. Allocation of Investment Costs for Large-Scale Heat Pumps Supplying District Heating / H. Pieper, T. Ommen, F. Buhler [et al.] // Energy Procedia. 2018. Vol. 147. P. 358–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.07.104

20. Guelpa, E. Thermal Energy Storage in District Heating and Cooling Systems: A Review / E. Guelpa, V. Verda // Applied Energy. 2019. Vol. 252. Art. 113474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113474

21. Tosatto, A. Simulation-Based Performance Evaluation of Large-Scale Thermal Energy Storage Coupled with Heat Pump in District Heating Systems / A. Tosatto, A. Dahash, F. Ochs // Journal of Energy Storage. 2023. Vol. 61. Art. 106721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106721

22. Techno-Economic Feasibility of Prosumers in Urban District Heating Systems Utilising Low-Temperature Industrial Excess Heat / U. Trabert, F. Pag, J. Orozaliev [et al.] // Energy. 2025. Vol. 330. Art. 136583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.136583

23. Validation and Optimization of a Solar Heating Plant with a Large-Scale Heat Pump / C. Zhan, Y. Xu, J. Fan [et al.] // Energy. 2025. Vol. 319. Art. 134898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.134898

24. Modeling Hybrid Energy Systems Integrating Heat Pumps and District Heating: a Systematic Review / A. Soleimani, P. Davidsson, R. Malekian [et al.] // Energy and Buildings. 2025. Vol. 329. Art. 115253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.115253.

25. Ommen, T. Heat Pumps in Combined Heat and Power Systems / T. Ommen, W. B. Markussen, B. Elmegaard // Energy. 2014. Vol. 76. P. 989–1000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.09.016

26. Assessment of a Combination of Three Heat Sources for Heat Pumps to Supply District Heating / H. Pieper, T. Ommen, B. Elmegaard, W. B. Markussen // Energy. 2009. Vol. 176. P. 156–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.03.165

27. Capone, M. Optimal Installation of Heat Pumps in Large District Heating Networks / M. Capone, E. Guelpa, V. Verda // Energies. 2023. Vol. 16, No 3. Art. 1448. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031448

28. Heat pump Placement, Connection and Operational Modes in European District Heating / M. A. Sayegh, P. Jadwiszczak, B. P. Axcell [et al.] // Energy and Buildings. 2018. Vol. 166. P. 122–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.02.006

29. Тепловые насосы в современной промышленности и коммунальной инфраструктуре: информ.-метод. изд. / Е. Г. Гашо, С. А. Козлов, В. С. Пузаков [и др.] М.: Перо, 2016. 204 с.

30. Чепурной, М. Н. Сравнение энергоэффективности систем теплоснабжения от отопительных котельных и теплонасосных установок / М. Н. Чепурной, О. В. Куцак, И. Н. Дымнич // Новости теплоснабжения. 2014. № 1. URL: https://www.rosteplo.ru/Tech_stat/stat_shablon.php?id=3191 (дата обращения: 15.04.2026).

31. Li, Y. Technology Application of District Heating System with Co-Generation Based on Absorption Heat Exchange / Y. Li, L. Fu, S. Zhang // Energy. 2015. Vol. 90, part 1. P. 663–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.07.090

32. Wen, K. The Analysis of Waste Heat Recovery in Steel Enterprises’ Data Centers Based on the Co-ah cycle / K. Wen, C. Zhou, X. Wang // PLoS One. 2025. Vol. 20, iss. 5. Art. e0323455. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0323455

33. SUNSTORE 3. Phase 2 Implementation: Final Report / PlanEnergi. 2015. URL: https://planenergi.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/SUNSTORE-3-Phase-2-Implementation.pdf (date of access: 15.04.2026).

34. Summer Performance Analysis of Coal-Based CCHP with New Configurations Comparing with Separate System / M. Wei, W. Yuan, L. Fu [et al.] // Energy. 2018. Vol. 143. P. 104–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.10.095

35. Cers, A. Recovery of the Waste Heat by Large Capacity Heat Pumps for Riga City District Heating System / A. Cers, D. Turlajs, N. Zeltinsh // Modern Science. 2013. Vol. 4, No 2. P. 38–43.

36. Use of Absorption Heat Pumps to Raise District Cooling Waste Heat Temperature for District Heating Supply in Tallinn: Technical and Economic Analysis / T. Kirs, S. Sukumaran, A. V. Sednin, I. A. Nekalo Experience of Application of High-Capacity Heat Pump Units in District Heating Systems 317 E. Latõšov, A. Volkova // Environmental and Climate Technologies. 2024. Vol. 28, Iss. 1. P. 409–421. https://doi.org/10.2478/rtuect-2024-0032

37. Калмыков, К. С. Применение теплонасосной установки в составе турбины К-1250-6,8/25 / К. С. Калмыков, И. Д. Аникина // The Scientific Heritage. 2021. No 80-1. C. 3–8. URL:https://www.scientific-heritage.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/The-scientific-heritage-No-80-80-2021-Vol-1.pdf

38. Mirl, N. Reduction of the Return Temperature in District Heating Systems with an Ammonia-Water Absorption Heat Pump / N. Mirl, F. Schmid, K. Spindler // Case Studies in Thermal Engineering. 2018. Vol. 12. P. 817–822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2018.10.010

39. New Configurations of District Heating System Based on Natural Gas and Deep Geothermal Energy for Higher Energy Efficiency in Northern China / F. Sun, X. Zhao, X. Chen [et al.] // Applied Thermal Engineering. 2019. Vol. 151. P. 439–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2019.02.043

40. Бабакин, Б. С. Хладагенты и холодильные масла / Б. С. Бабакин, С. Б. Бабакин. М.: ДеЛи плюс, 2017. 390 с.

41. Heat Roadmap Europe: Large-Scale Electric Heat Pumps in District Heating Systems / A. David, B. V. Mathiesen, H. Averfalk [et al.] // Energies. 2017. Vol. 10, iss. 4. Art. 578. https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040578

42. Жидович, И. С. Системный подход к оценке эффективности тепловых насосов / И. С. Жидович, В. И. Трутаев // Новости теплоснабжения. 2001. № 11. С. 44–49. URL: https://www.rosteplo.ru/Tech_stat/stat_shablon.php?id=189

43. Hoffmann, K. Ammonia Heat Pumps for District Heating in Norway–A Case Study / K. Hoffmann, D. F. Pearson // Institute of Refrigeration: annual proceedings. 2011. Vol. 107. URL: https://iifiir.org/en/fridoc/ammonia-heat-pumps-for-district-heating-in-norway-a-casestudy-27750

44. Rethinking Peak Load in District Heating: Operational Insights and Techno-Economic Pathways / H. Ali, A. Volkova, A. Dedov, S. Moser // Energy Reports. 2026. Vol. 15. Art. 109061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2026.109061

45. MAN Energy Solutions to Deliver Additional Heat Pump Unit for Aalborg’s District Heating: Press Release / MAN Energy Solutions. Schweiz AG. Zurich, 2024. URL: https://www.manes.com/docs/default-source/press-releases-new/man-es_press-release_aalborg_4th-unit_e_170724.pdf?sfvrsn=77601d25_1 (date of access: 15.04.2026).

46. Султангузин, И. А. Высокотемпературные тепловые насосы большой мощности для теплоснабжения / И. А. Султангузин, А. А. Потапова // Новости теплоснабжения. 2010. № 10 (122). C. 23–27. URL: https://www.rosteplo.ru/Tech_stat/stat_shablon.php?id=2363

47. Thermal Design and Optimization of High-Temperature Heat Pump Integrated with District Heating Benchmarked in Denmark for Process Heat Supply / M. Sadeghi, T. Petersen, Z. Yang [et al.] // International Journal of Refrigeration. 2024. Vol. 159. P. 356–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2023.12.025

48. Pedersen, S. E. Теплонасосная станция мощностью 18 МВт, утилизирующая низкопотенциальное сбросное тепло сточных вод в Норвегии / S. E. Pedersen // Тепловые насосы. 2011. № 1. С. 37–38.

49. The Roll-out of Large-Scale Heat Pumps in Germany. Strategies for the Market Ramp-up in District Heating and Industry / F. Ahrendts, B. Drechsler, J. Hendricks [et al.] // Agora Energiewende. 2023. URL: https://www.agora-energiewende.org/publications/the-roll-out-oflarge-scale-heat-pumps-in-germany (date of access: 15.04.2026).

50. Flexibility by Implementation of Heat Pumps in Multi-Vector Energy Systems and Thermal Networks. Task 3 Report: Concepts for Heat Pump Flexibility and Promising Solutions / P. Mascherbauer, P. Ortmann, A. Oliva [et al.]. Borås: IEA Heat Pumping Technologies TCP, 2024. URL: https://heatpumpingtechnologies.org/content/uploads/sites/69/2024/03/task-3reportdtifinal.pdf (date of access: 15.04.2026).

51. Flexibility by Implementation of Heat Pumps in Multi-Vector Energy Systems and Thermal Networks / IEA Heat Pumping Technologies TCP. Borås, 2024. URL: https://heatpumpingtechnologies.org/annex57/ (date of access:15.04.2026).

52. Electricity Market Options for Heat Pumps in Rural District Heating Networks in Austria / O. Terreros, J. Spreitzhofer, D. Basciotti [et al.] // Energy. 2020. Vol. 196. Art. 116875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116875

53. Kalina, J. Sizing Large-Scale Industrial Heat Pump for Heat Recovery from Treated Municipal Sewage in Coal-Fired District Heating System / J. Kalina // Archives of Thermodynamics. 2024. Vol. 45, Iss. 4. P. 155–162. https://doi.org/10.24425/ather.2024.152001

54. Bloess, A. Power-to-Heat for Renewable Energy Integration: a Review of Technologies, Modeling Approaches, and Flexibility Potentials / A. Bloess, W.-P. Schill, A. Zerrahn // Applied Energy. 2018. Vol. 212. P. 1611–1626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.073

55. Опыт утилизации низкопотенциального тепла с использованием абсорбционного теплового насоса / Н. Талцис, А. Церс, С. Плискачев [и др.] // Новости теплоснабжения. 2011. № 5. URL: https://www.rosteplo.ru/Tech_stat/stat_shablon.php?id=3912 (дата обращения: 15.04.2026).

56. Девянин, Д. Н. Разработка и испытание на ТЭЦ-28 ОАО «Мосэнерго» лабораторного стенда по апробации схем использования тепловых насосных установок в энергетике / Д. Н. Девянин, С. И. Пищиков, Ю. Н. Соколов // Новости теплоснабжения. 2000. № 1. URL: https://www.rosteplo.ru/Tech_stat/stat_shablon.php?id=3638 (дата обращения: 15.04.2026).

57. Анализ использования тепловых насосов на тепловых и атомных электростанциях / Н. Н. Ефимов, В. В. Папин, П. А. Малышев [и др.] // Известия вузов. Северо-Кавказский регион. Сер. Технические науки. 2010. № 4. С. 35–39.

58. Sednin, V. Modernization of a Combined-Cycle Gas Turbine Unit for Operation in the Dynamic District Heating Mode / V. Sednin, A. Sednin, S. Rumyantsev // E3S Web of Conferences. 2021. Vol. 288. Art. 01090. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128801090

59. Digitalisation of the Danish District Heating Sector: Case Catalogue, 2023 / State of Green, Danish District Heating Association, DBDH, Grøn Energi. Copenhagen: State of Green, 2023. URL: https://dbdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/SoG_case_catalogue_DIGI_spreads_compressed.pdf (date of access:15.04.2026).

60. Blarke, M. B. Large-Scale Heat Pumps in Sustainable Energy Systems: System and Project Perspectives / M. B. Blarke, H. Lund // Thermal Science. 2007. Vol. 11, Iss. 3. P. 143–152. https://doi.org/10.2298/TSCI0703143B

61. Neves, J. Heat Roadmap Europe: Potentials for Large-Scale Heat Pumps in District Heating / J. Neves, B. V. Mathiesen. Copenhagen: Department of Planning, Aalborg University, 2018. 34 p. URL: https://heatpumpingtechnologies.org/annex47/wp-content/uploads/sites/54/2019/07/heat-roadmap-europe.pdf (date of access: 15.04.2026).

62. Feasibility of a Booster for DHW Circulation in Apartment Buildings / J. E. Thorsen, S. Svendsen, K. M. Smith [et al.] // Energy Reports. 2021. Vol. 7, Suppl. 4. P. 311–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.08.141

63. Development and Test: Future-Proof Substation Designs for the Low-Temperature Operation of Domestic Hot Water Systems with a Circulation Loop / Q. Yang, R. Salenbien, E. Motoasca [et al.] // Energy and Buildings. 2023. Vol. 298. Art. 113490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2023.113490

64. Large Heat Pumps in Swedish District Heating Systems / H. Averfalk, P. Ingvarsson, U. Persson [et al.] // Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017. Vol. 79. P. 1275–1284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.135

65. Van Oevelen, T. Evaluation of the Return Temperature Reduction Potential of Optimized Substation Control / T. Van Oevelen, D. Vanhoudt, R. Salenbien // Energy Procedia. 2018. Vol. 149. P. 206–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.08.185

66. Air-Source Ammonia Heat Pump for District Heating: a Field Modeling Approach with Focus on Frosting-Defrosting Cycles / A. F. Passarelli, U. Merlo, F. Pelella [et al.] // Applied Thermal Engineering. 2026. Vol. 282. Art. 128790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2025.128790

67. Technology Data for Energy Plants for Electricity and District Heating Generation // Danish Energy Agency. URL: https://ens.dk/en/analyses-and-statistics/technology-data-generationelectricity-and-district-heating (date of access: 15.04.2026).

68. The World's Largest Seawater Heat Pump in Esbjerg: Project 57 // IEA Technology Collaboration Programme on Heat Pumping Technologies (HPT TCP). Esbjerg, 2023. URL: https://heatpumpingtechnologies.org/project57/case-studies/the-worlds-largest-seawater-heat-pumpin-esbjerg/ (date of access: 15.04.2026).

69. Jeßberger, J. Maximising the Potential of Deep Geothermal Energy: Thermal Output Increase by Large-Scale Heat Pumps / J. Jeßberger, F. Heberle, D. Brüggemann // Applied Thermal Engineering. 2024. Vol. 257, Part A. Art. 124240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2024.124240

70. Simulating the Thermal Operating Conditions in the Thermal Wells of Ground-Source Heat-Pump Heat Supply Systems. Part II: Consideration of Porous Moisture Phase Transitions in Soil / G. P. Vasilyev, N. V. Peskov, V. A. Lichman [et al.] // Thermal Engineering. 2015. Vol. 62, No 10. P. 751–756. https://doi.org/10.1134/s0040601515100109

71. A Comprehensive Review on Pit Thermal Energy Storage: Technical Elements, Numerical Approaches and Recent Applications / Y. Xiang, Z. Xie, S. Furbo [et al.] // Journal of Energy Storage. 2022. Vol. 55, Part C. Art. 105716. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2022.105716

72. Passamonti, A. Design, Construction, and Commissioning of a 500 kW High-Temperature Heat Pump Plant for the District Heating Network of Bochum, Germany / A. Passamonti, F. Sachse, P. Bombarda, R. Bracke // Energy Reports. 2025. Vol. 13. P. 548–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.11.080

73. Hammerschmid, A. SUNSTORE 4: CHP Plant Based on a Hybrid Biomass and Large Scale Solar System Results after Monitoring / A. Hammerschmid, L. Kjærgaard Larsen, I. Obernberger // Proceedings of the 24th European Biomass Conference and Exhibition, June 6–9, 2016, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Florence: ETA-Florence Renewable Energies, 2016. P. 1686–1693. URL: https://www.bios-bioenergy.at/images/bios/downloads/publikationen/Hybridanlagen_Hybrid_plants/056-Paper-Hammerschmid-SUNSTORE4-CHPHybridBiomass-LargeScaleSolarSystem-Monitoringresults-EUBCE2016.pdf.

74. Overview of Markets and Regulatory Frameworks under the Revised Renewable Energy Directive: Annexes 6 and 7: Final Version / European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2022. URL: https://dbdh.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Overview-of-District-Heating-and-Cooling-Markets.pdf (date of access: 15.04.2026).

75. Monsalves, J. J. Impacts of Flexible-Cooling and Waste-Heat Recovery from Data Centres on Energy Systems: A Danish Case Study / J. J. Monsalves, C. Bergaentzlé, D. Keles // Energy. 2023. Vol. 281. Art. 128112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.128112

76. Romanov, D. Comparative Analysis of Scenarios of Data Center Waste Heat Utilization for District Heating Networks of Different Generations / D. Romanov, I. Chakraborty, S. Holler // Energy Conversion and Management. 2025. Vol. 334. Art. 119856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2025.119856

77. Large-Scale Long-Distance Data Center Waste Heat District Heating System: Exergy Analysis, System Performance, and Application / Y. Jing, Z. Zhan, M. Li [et al.] // Energy. 2026. Vol. 345. Art. 140076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2026.140076

78. Allouhi, A. Techno-Economic and Environmental Accounting Analyses of an Innovative Power-to-Heat Concept Based on Solar PV Systems and a Geothermal Heat Pump / A. Allouhi // Renewable Energy. 2022. Vol. 191. P. 649–661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.04.001

79. Long Term (2050) Projections of Techno-Economic Performance of Large-Scale Heating and Cooling in the EU / R. Grosse, B. Christopher, W. Stefan [et al.]. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2017. URL: https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/bitstream/JRC109006/kjna28859enn.pdf.

80. Evaluating Low-Temperature Heat Sources for Large-Scale Heat Pump Integration: a Method Using Open-Source Data and Indicators / N. Fuchs, G. Yanez, B. Nkongdem, J. Thomsen // Applied Energy. 2025. Vol. 377, Part B. Art. 124487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124487

81. Industrial Heat Pumps: Electrifying Industry’s Process Heat Supply: ACEEE report / E. Rightor, P. Scheihing, A. Hoffmeister, R. Papar. Washington, DC: American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, 2022. URL: https://www.aceee.org/research-report/ie2201 (date of access: 15.04.2026).

82. Wolf, S. Systematische Anwendung von Großwärmepumpen in der Schweizer Industrie: Endbericht / S. Wolf, R. Flatau, P. Radgen, M. Blesl. Stuttgart: Universität Stuttgart, Institut für Energiewirtschaft und Rationelle Energieanwendung, 2017. URL: chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://waermepumpe-izw.de/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/160510_Bfe-Bericht_WP_industr._Anwendungen.pdf

83. Integrated Planning of a Large-Scale Heat Pump in View of Heat and Power Networks / S. Klyapovskiy, S. You, H. Cai, H. W. Bindner // IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2019. Vol. 55, No 1. P. 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2018.2864114

84. Heat Recovery from Local Paper Mill in Skjern: Case Study // Euroheat & Power. 2017. URL:https://www.euroheat.org/dhc/knowledge-hub/heat-recovery-from-local-paper-mill-in-skjern (date of access: 15.04.2026).

85. Albicker, M. Industrial High Temperature Heat Pumps in Germany and Europe Potentials, Application Cases and Support Policy / M. Albicker, P. Geres. Beijing, Berlin: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 2022. URL: https://www.dena.de/filead min/dena/Dokumente/Projektportrait/Projektarchiv/Entrans/Industrial_high_temperature_heat_pumps_in_Germany_and_Europe_-_potentials__application_cases_and_support_EN.pdf

86. Research on the Assessment of Specific Barriers to District Heating Deployment in Ireland: working paper № 29 / K. Lygnerud, B. Unluturk, C. Garside, J. O'Shea; Climate Change Advisory Council. Dublin: Climate Change Advisory Council, 2024. URL: https://www.climatecouncil.ie/councilpublications/councilworkingpaperseries/Research%20on%20the%20assessment%20of%20specific%20barriers%20to%20district%20heating%20deployment%20in%20Ireland%20FINAL.pdf (date of access: 15.04.2026).

87. Operation Optimization in Large-Scale Heat Pump Systems: A Scheduling Framework Integrating Digital Twin Modelling, Demand Forecasting, and MILP / J. J. Aguilera, R. Padullés, W. Meesenburg [et al.] // Applied Energy. 2024. Vol. 376, Part B. Art. 124259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.124259

88. Gjengedal, S. Online Remote-Controlled and Cost-Effective Fouling and Clogging Surveillance of a Groundwater Heat Pump System / S. Gjengedal, L. A. Stenvik, R. K. Ramstad [et al.] // Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment. 2021. Vol. 80. P. 1063–1072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-020-01963-z

89. Adaptive Model-Based Monitoring of Large-Scale Heat Pump Prone to Evaporator Fouling / J. J. Aguilera, W. Meesenburg, W. B. Markussen [et al.] // Proceedings of the 26th IIR International Congress of Refrigeration, Paris, France, August 21–25, 2023. Paris, 2023. 12 p. https://doi.org/10.18462/iir.icr.2023.0565